Liability for Nuclear Damage: Lessons from the Nuclear Reactor Damage Tragedy at Fukushima Daiichi, Japan
(Liabiliti Akibat Kerosakan Reaktor Nuklear: Iktibar daripada Tragedi Fukushima Daiichi)
Abstract
This article explicates the legal issues and liabilities related to the nuclear damage at Fukushima, Japan in the hope it will provide lessons to Malaysia in handling any nuclear-related damage in the future. In addition, this paper also reviews the international laws pertaining to claims for compensation and protection to victims and property as well as the international standards with regard to compensation payments to victims. It is hoped that this will give a clear picture of the laws and liabilities that the Government should undertake in providing adequate protection in case of a nuclear-related disaster in Malaysia.Keywords: liability, nuclear damage, nuclear energy, international, law, nuclear law.
References
Act on Compensation for Nuclear Damage 1961, http://www.jepco.co.jp/dy/legislation/6672.html. [2 Jun 2013].
Akta Perlesenan Tenaga Atom 1984 (Akta 304).
Anthony Froggatt, 2013. "Summary and Analysis of International Nuclear Liability" dlm. Fukushima Fallout - Nuclear Business Makes People Pays and Suffer. Amsterdam: Greenpeace International.
Associated Press "Fukushima Protesters Urge Japan to Abandon Nuclear Power", 19 September 2011.
Bernstein, Barton J. "Eclipsed by Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Early Thinking about Tactical Nuclear Weapons" dalam International Security (Spring 1991) 15 (4).
Brian J. Cook, Jacque L. Emel dan Roger E. Kasperson, "Organizing and Managing Radioactive Waste Disposal As an Experiment" dlm. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 9:3, 1990.
Centre for Dispute Resolution for Compensating Damages from the Nuclear Power Plant Incident of Japan, 2011. http://www.mwxt.go.jp/a_menu/anzenkakuho/baisho/12104.htm [2 April 2013].
Daniel P. Aldrich, January 2012. "Post-Crisis Japanese Nuclear Policy: From Top-Down Directives to Bottom-up Activism" dlm. Analysis from the East-West Center. No. 103.
David McNeill, 2013. "Fukushima Two Years Later. Lives Still in Limbo" dlm. Fukushima Fallout - Nuclear Business Makes People Pays and Suffer. Amsterdam: Greenpeace International.
EBRD, 2006. "Energy Operations Policy, as approved by the Board of Directors 11th July 2006" dlm. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. London. http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/policies/sector/powerenergy.pdf (Capaian pada 12 Jun 2015).
Feldman, Eric, 2013. "Fukushima: Catastrophe, Compensation and Justice in Japan". Faculty Scholarship. Paper 465, hlm. 344-45.
Handrilica, J., "Channelling of Nuclear Third Party Liability Towards The Operator Jeopardised by The Brussels Regulation" dlm. Czech Society for International Law 2, 2011.
Hiroko Tabuchi, "Japan Leader to Keep Nuclear Phase-Out" dlm. New York Time, 2 September 2011.
Hiroyuki Umeki, 2010. "Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Radioactive Waste Management in Japan - An Overview". Kertas kerja dalam IAEA Technical Meeting on the Establishment of a Radioactive Waste Management Organisation, Maison de la Chimie, Paris, Perancis, 7-9 Jun 2010.
IAEA, 2012. "Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage", 29 Mei 2012. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/ Documents/ Conventions/ protamend_status. pdf (Capaian pada 12 Mac 2013).
IAEA, '1998 Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage'. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc567.pdf, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (Capaian pada 13 Jun 2014).
IAEA, Caroll, S., "Perspective on the Pros and Cons of a Pooling-type Approach to Nuclear Third Party Liability" dlm. Nuclear Law Bulletin. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2008.
IAEA, Convention Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29 July 1960 on Third Party Liability in the Field of NuclearEnergy. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Treaties/parisconv.html [12 April 2013].
IAEA, Report of the International Review Mission on the Radioactive Safety Aspects of a Proposed Rare Earths Processing Facility (the Lynas Project) 29 May-3 June 2011, Malaysia, Division of Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Waste Technology, NE/ NEW/2011, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2011.
IAEA, Resolution GC (XXXII) RES/491 bertajuk "Liability for nuclear damage" International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna.
IAEA, The Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention, September 1988, Protokol Bersama ini berkuat kuasa mulai 27 April 1992. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/In402.shtml [11 April 2013].
IAEA, Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 21 Mei 1963, Dokumen IAEA, LN - 12/46, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1963.
INELX, "Civil Liability for Nuclear Damages: Advantages and Disadvantages of Joining the International Nuclear Liability Regime A Paper by the International Experts Group on Nuclear Liability (INLEX) http://ola.iaea.org/ola/treaties/documents/liability_regime.pdf. [3 April 2013].
Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo Electric Power Company (2011). Interim, Investigation Report, 26 December 2011.
Julia A. Schwarts, International Nuclear Third Party Liability Law: The Response to Chernobyl, A Joint Report by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2006.
Kementerian Ekonomi, Perdagangan dan Industri Jepun, Peta Evakuasi, yang disiarkan melalui laman web Kementerian berkenaan pada 15 Jun 2012, http://www.meti.go.jp/english/earthquake/nuclear/roadmap/pdf/evacuation _map_120615.pdf [2 April 2013].
Lamm, V, "The Protocol Amending the 1963 Vienna Convention" in Nuclear Law Bulletin, No 61. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1998.
National Policies on Radioactive Waste Management - Japan http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Nuclear-Wastes/Appendices/Radioactive-Waste-Management-Appendix-3-National-Policies/ [5 Februari 2015]
NEA, 1993. "NEA Issue Brief: An analysis of principal nuclear issues International nuclear third party liability, No. 4 - 1st revision", Nuclear Energy Agency November 1993, accessed November 2012 http://www.oecd-nea. org/brief/brief-04-1.html [20 September 2015].
Nuclear Technology Review 2012, GC(56)/INF/3, General Conference, Fifty-sixth regular session, GC(56)/INF/3, Date: 1 August 2012, General Distribution.
O'Higgins P, McGrath, 'P. Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Law, An Irish Perspective, Nuclear Law Bulletin No 70, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 200.
OECD/NEA, Japan's Compensation System for Nuclear Damages, Legal Affairs, Organisasi Kerjasama Ekonomi dan Pembangunan (OECD), Paris, Perancis 2012.
Peraturan-Peraturan Pelesenan Tenaga Atom (Perlindungan Sinaran Keselamatan Asas) 2010 - P.U.(A) 46.
Peter Riley, Nuclear Waste Law, Policy and Pragmatism, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Hampshire, United Kingdom, 2006.
Radioactive Waste Management Programmes in OECD/NEA Member Countries - Japan (2011) http://www.oecd-nea.org/rwm/profiles/Japan%20profile%202010%20web.pdf, [12 Januari 2013].
Rafhayudi Jamro, Danieal Hergenreder, Carlos Lecot, Redzuwan Yahaya, Abdul Aziz Mohamed, Eid Abdel_Munem, Megat Harun Al-Rashid, Julia Abd Karim, Ikki Kurniawan, Hafizal Yazid, Azraf Azman & Shukri Mohd, 'Criticality Calculation In Triga Mark II Puspati Reactor Using Monte Carlo Code' (2008) 5 (2) 65-71 J NUCL. & Rel. TECH.
Report on Radioactive Waste Management Programmes in OECD/NEA Member Countries - Japan, Nuclear Energy Agency, 2011.
Rolf Lidskog & Ann-Catrin Andersson, The Management of Radioactive Waste: A Description of Ten Countries, Swedish Nuclear and Waste Management Co, Sweeden, 2002.
Seigo Kinuya, A Nuclear Power Plant Accident in Fukushima: What Should We Do?, disiarkan oleh The Japanese Society of Nuclear Science Medicine, 12 November 2011.
Simon Caroll dan Antony Frogatt, 'Nuclear Third Party Insurance The Nuclear Sector's "Silent" Subsidy State of Play and Opportunities in Europe' The Nonproliferation Policy Education Centre, Arlington, 2008..
Tatsumi, Y., 2013. The Stimson Center Presents.Japan under DPJ Rule, dlm. Harvard International Review 34:3, 2013.
TEPCO http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/2012/1206837 _1870.html [2 April 2013].
TEPCO's Nationalisation: State Power, "11 Mei 2012. http://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2012/05/tepco's -nationalisation [4 Januari 2013].
Tetley M., 2006. "Revised Paris and Vienna Nuclear Liability Conventions - Challenges for Nuclear Insurers" dlm. Nuclear Law Bulletin. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.
The 1997 Protocol to Amend the 1963 Vienna Convention,http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc566.pdf; the 2004 Protocol to Amend the 1960 Paris Convention see http://www.oecd-nea.org/law/paris_convention.pdf [11 Januari 2015].
The 2004 Protocol to amend the 1963 Brussels Supplementary Supplementary Convention, sila lihat http://www.oecd-nea.org/law/brussels-supplementary-convention-protocol.html. [11 Januari 2015].
The Asahi, 2011. "Government Oks TEPCO Compensation Framework", 13 Mei 2011.
The Daily Yomiuri, 'TEPCO May Start Lump-Sum Compensation in August', 26 Julai 2012. http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/T120725005729.html. [2 April 2013]
The Fukushima Daiichi Accident, Report by the Director General, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2015.
Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), 2011. Annual Report . http://www.tepco.co.jp/ir/tool/annual/pdf/ar2011-e.pdf, 2011 (Capaian pada 2 April 2013).
United States Export Import Bank atau Ex-Im Bank, Environmental And Safety Guidelines For Nuclear Power Plant, http://www.exim.gov/generalbankpolicies/environment/ENVIRONMENTAL-AND-SOCIAL-GUIDELINES.cfm#annexA-3 [12 Mei 2015].
United States Export Import Bank or Ex-Im Bank 64 EX-IM (2006), "Bank Nuclear Guidelines - Annex A". United States Export Import Bank, August 2006 http://www.exim.gov/products/policies/nuclear/ envnuc.html#guidelines [22 September 2015].
Upendra Baxi, A. D. Valiant, 1990. Victims and Lethal Litigation the Bhopal Case. The Indian Law Institute.
Varadarajan S, "Turn the Nuclear Bill From Liability To Asset" Siddharth Varadarajan dlm. Hindu Times, 16 June 2010.
Wang, Q. dan Chen, X., "Regulatory Transparency-How China Can Learn from Japan's Nuclear Regulatory Failures?" dlm. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16:6, 2012.
Winifred Bird, As Fukushima Cleanup Begins, Long-term Impacts are Weighed, Environment360, Yale University http://e360.yale.edu/feature/as_fufkushima_cleanup_begins_long-term_impacts_are weighed/2482 [2 April 2013].
Yamane, F., Ohgaki, H. dan Asano, K., "Social Factors Affecting Economic Welfare of the Residents around Nuclear Power Plants" dlm. Japan, Energy Procedia 9:0, 2011.
Yoshihiro Nagaoki, "Estimation of Accident Risk Cost of Nuclear Power Plants, Subcommittee" dlm. Nuclear Power and Nuclear Fuel Cycle Technologies, 28 Mei 2013. Tokyo: t.pn.
Akta Perlesenan Tenaga Atom 1984 (Akta 304).
Anthony Froggatt, 2013. "Summary and Analysis of International Nuclear Liability" dlm. Fukushima Fallout - Nuclear Business Makes People Pays and Suffer. Amsterdam: Greenpeace International.
Associated Press "Fukushima Protesters Urge Japan to Abandon Nuclear Power", 19 September 2011.
Bernstein, Barton J. "Eclipsed by Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Early Thinking about Tactical Nuclear Weapons" dalam International Security (Spring 1991) 15 (4).
Brian J. Cook, Jacque L. Emel dan Roger E. Kasperson, "Organizing and Managing Radioactive Waste Disposal As an Experiment" dlm. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 9:3, 1990.
Centre for Dispute Resolution for Compensating Damages from the Nuclear Power Plant Incident of Japan, 2011. http://www.mwxt.go.jp/a_menu/anzenkakuho/baisho/12104.htm [2 April 2013].
Daniel P. Aldrich, January 2012. "Post-Crisis Japanese Nuclear Policy: From Top-Down Directives to Bottom-up Activism" dlm. Analysis from the East-West Center. No. 103.
David McNeill, 2013. "Fukushima Two Years Later. Lives Still in Limbo" dlm. Fukushima Fallout - Nuclear Business Makes People Pays and Suffer. Amsterdam: Greenpeace International.
EBRD, 2006. "Energy Operations Policy, as approved by the Board of Directors 11th July 2006" dlm. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. London. http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/policies/sector/powerenergy.pdf (Capaian pada 12 Jun 2015).
Feldman, Eric, 2013. "Fukushima: Catastrophe, Compensation and Justice in Japan". Faculty Scholarship. Paper 465, hlm. 344-45.
Handrilica, J., "Channelling of Nuclear Third Party Liability Towards The Operator Jeopardised by The Brussels Regulation" dlm. Czech Society for International Law 2, 2011.
Hiroko Tabuchi, "Japan Leader to Keep Nuclear Phase-Out" dlm. New York Time, 2 September 2011.
Hiroyuki Umeki, 2010. "Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Radioactive Waste Management in Japan - An Overview". Kertas kerja dalam IAEA Technical Meeting on the Establishment of a Radioactive Waste Management Organisation, Maison de la Chimie, Paris, Perancis, 7-9 Jun 2010.
IAEA, 2012. "Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage", 29 Mei 2012. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/ Documents/ Conventions/ protamend_status. pdf (Capaian pada 12 Mac 2013).
IAEA, '1998 Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage'. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc567.pdf, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (Capaian pada 13 Jun 2014).
IAEA, Caroll, S., "Perspective on the Pros and Cons of a Pooling-type Approach to Nuclear Third Party Liability" dlm. Nuclear Law Bulletin. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2008.
IAEA, Convention Supplementary to the Paris Convention of 29 July 1960 on Third Party Liability in the Field of NuclearEnergy. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Treaties/parisconv.html [12 April 2013].
IAEA, Report of the International Review Mission on the Radioactive Safety Aspects of a Proposed Rare Earths Processing Facility (the Lynas Project) 29 May-3 June 2011, Malaysia, Division of Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Waste Technology, NE/ NEW/2011, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2011.
IAEA, Resolution GC (XXXII) RES/491 bertajuk "Liability for nuclear damage" International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna.
IAEA, The Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention, September 1988, Protokol Bersama ini berkuat kuasa mulai 27 April 1992. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/In402.shtml [11 April 2013].
IAEA, Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 21 Mei 1963, Dokumen IAEA, LN - 12/46, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1963.
INELX, "Civil Liability for Nuclear Damages: Advantages and Disadvantages of Joining the International Nuclear Liability Regime A Paper by the International Experts Group on Nuclear Liability (INLEX) http://ola.iaea.org/ola/treaties/documents/liability_regime.pdf. [3 April 2013].
Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo Electric Power Company (2011). Interim, Investigation Report, 26 December 2011.
Julia A. Schwarts, International Nuclear Third Party Liability Law: The Response to Chernobyl, A Joint Report by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2006.
Kementerian Ekonomi, Perdagangan dan Industri Jepun, Peta Evakuasi, yang disiarkan melalui laman web Kementerian berkenaan pada 15 Jun 2012, http://www.meti.go.jp/english/earthquake/nuclear/roadmap/pdf/evacuation _map_120615.pdf [2 April 2013].
Lamm, V, "The Protocol Amending the 1963 Vienna Convention" in Nuclear Law Bulletin, No 61. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1998.
National Policies on Radioactive Waste Management - Japan http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Nuclear-Wastes/Appendices/Radioactive-Waste-Management-Appendix-3-National-Policies/ [5 Februari 2015]
NEA, 1993. "NEA Issue Brief: An analysis of principal nuclear issues International nuclear third party liability, No. 4 - 1st revision", Nuclear Energy Agency November 1993, accessed November 2012 http://www.oecd-nea. org/brief/brief-04-1.html [20 September 2015].
Nuclear Technology Review 2012, GC(56)/INF/3, General Conference, Fifty-sixth regular session, GC(56)/INF/3, Date: 1 August 2012, General Distribution.
O'Higgins P, McGrath, 'P. Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Law, An Irish Perspective, Nuclear Law Bulletin No 70, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 200.
OECD/NEA, Japan's Compensation System for Nuclear Damages, Legal Affairs, Organisasi Kerjasama Ekonomi dan Pembangunan (OECD), Paris, Perancis 2012.
Peraturan-Peraturan Pelesenan Tenaga Atom (Perlindungan Sinaran Keselamatan Asas) 2010 - P.U.(A) 46.
Peter Riley, Nuclear Waste Law, Policy and Pragmatism, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Hampshire, United Kingdom, 2006.
Radioactive Waste Management Programmes in OECD/NEA Member Countries - Japan (2011) http://www.oecd-nea.org/rwm/profiles/Japan%20profile%202010%20web.pdf, [12 Januari 2013].
Rafhayudi Jamro, Danieal Hergenreder, Carlos Lecot, Redzuwan Yahaya, Abdul Aziz Mohamed, Eid Abdel_Munem, Megat Harun Al-Rashid, Julia Abd Karim, Ikki Kurniawan, Hafizal Yazid, Azraf Azman & Shukri Mohd, 'Criticality Calculation In Triga Mark II Puspati Reactor Using Monte Carlo Code' (2008) 5 (2) 65-71 J NUCL. & Rel. TECH.
Report on Radioactive Waste Management Programmes in OECD/NEA Member Countries - Japan, Nuclear Energy Agency, 2011.
Rolf Lidskog & Ann-Catrin Andersson, The Management of Radioactive Waste: A Description of Ten Countries, Swedish Nuclear and Waste Management Co, Sweeden, 2002.
Seigo Kinuya, A Nuclear Power Plant Accident in Fukushima: What Should We Do?, disiarkan oleh The Japanese Society of Nuclear Science Medicine, 12 November 2011.
Simon Caroll dan Antony Frogatt, 'Nuclear Third Party Insurance The Nuclear Sector's "Silent" Subsidy State of Play and Opportunities in Europe' The Nonproliferation Policy Education Centre, Arlington, 2008..
Tatsumi, Y., 2013. The Stimson Center Presents.Japan under DPJ Rule, dlm. Harvard International Review 34:3, 2013.
TEPCO http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/2012/1206837 _1870.html [2 April 2013].
TEPCO's Nationalisation: State Power, "11 Mei 2012. http://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2012/05/tepco's -nationalisation [4 Januari 2013].
Tetley M., 2006. "Revised Paris and Vienna Nuclear Liability Conventions - Challenges for Nuclear Insurers" dlm. Nuclear Law Bulletin. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.
The 1997 Protocol to Amend the 1963 Vienna Convention,http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/1998/infcirc566.pdf; the 2004 Protocol to Amend the 1960 Paris Convention see http://www.oecd-nea.org/law/paris_convention.pdf [11 Januari 2015].
The 2004 Protocol to amend the 1963 Brussels Supplementary Supplementary Convention, sila lihat http://www.oecd-nea.org/law/brussels-supplementary-convention-protocol.html. [11 Januari 2015].
The Asahi, 2011. "Government Oks TEPCO Compensation Framework", 13 Mei 2011.
The Daily Yomiuri, 'TEPCO May Start Lump-Sum Compensation in August', 26 Julai 2012. http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/T120725005729.html. [2 April 2013]
The Fukushima Daiichi Accident, Report by the Director General, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2015.
Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), 2011. Annual Report . http://www.tepco.co.jp/ir/tool/annual/pdf/ar2011-e.pdf, 2011 (Capaian pada 2 April 2013).
United States Export Import Bank atau Ex-Im Bank, Environmental And Safety Guidelines For Nuclear Power Plant, http://www.exim.gov/generalbankpolicies/environment/ENVIRONMENTAL-AND-SOCIAL-GUIDELINES.cfm#annexA-3 [12 Mei 2015].
United States Export Import Bank or Ex-Im Bank 64 EX-IM (2006), "Bank Nuclear Guidelines - Annex A". United States Export Import Bank, August 2006 http://www.exim.gov/products/policies/nuclear/ envnuc.html#guidelines [22 September 2015].
Upendra Baxi, A. D. Valiant, 1990. Victims and Lethal Litigation the Bhopal Case. The Indian Law Institute.
Varadarajan S, "Turn the Nuclear Bill From Liability To Asset" Siddharth Varadarajan dlm. Hindu Times, 16 June 2010.
Wang, Q. dan Chen, X., "Regulatory Transparency-How China Can Learn from Japan's Nuclear Regulatory Failures?" dlm. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16:6, 2012.
Winifred Bird, As Fukushima Cleanup Begins, Long-term Impacts are Weighed, Environment360, Yale University http://e360.yale.edu/feature/as_fufkushima_cleanup_begins_long-term_impacts_are weighed/2482 [2 April 2013].
Yamane, F., Ohgaki, H. dan Asano, K., "Social Factors Affecting Economic Welfare of the Residents around Nuclear Power Plants" dlm. Japan, Energy Procedia 9:0, 2011.
Yoshihiro Nagaoki, "Estimation of Accident Risk Cost of Nuclear Power Plants, Subcommittee" dlm. Nuclear Power and Nuclear Fuel Cycle Technologies, 28 Mei 2013. Tokyo: t.pn.
Published
2017-02-08
How to Cite
JAAFAR, Syahmi@Muhammad Syahmi.
Liability for Nuclear Damage: Lessons from the Nuclear Reactor Damage Tragedy at Fukushima Daiichi, Japan.
Kanun: Jurnal Undang-undang Malaysia, [S.l.], v. 29, n. 1, p. 118-142, feb. 2017.
ISSN 2682-8057.
Available at: <https://jurnal.dbp.my/index.php/Kanun/article/view/4387>. Date accessed: 19 apr. 2024.
Section
Articles
